A BRIEF HISTORY OF EDINBURGH

* Much of Edinburgh's early history seems to surround its central fortification and this is the point where most archaeological evidence has been found to help us discover the past. The rock upon which Edinburgh Castle now stands is a natural stronghold, and warring Celtic tribes are believed to have used it as such during the first centuries of the first millennium. King Edwin of Northumbria is believed to have built the fort on the strategic stone and it was called Dun Eadain meaning 'Fortress-on-a-Hill' later to become either Edwin's Burgh or Eadain's Burgh, although there has been much debate as to whether this is actually true. However, a fledgling community slowly developed around the skirts of the protective stockade. Taking its starting point from the Castle, the town then developed down the slope of the Castle Rock.
* In 1018 King Malcolm II defeated the Northumbrians and Edinburgh Castle became Scottish.
* In 1128, King David I, after founding Holyrood Abbey in Edinburgh, moved his court and thus, the Scottish capital, from Dunfermline to Edinburgh. From around this time the town rapidly grew in size and importance. As animosity increased between the Scots and the English, Edinburgh's overall strategic importance grew and with it the castle became more and more of a recognised stronghold for the city.
* Since the 9th century there has been a church on the site where St Giles' Cathedral now stands, but little is known about it until the building founded by Alexander I in 1120. The developing route - from the Castle, along Lawn Market & High Street (past St Giles' Cathedral), to the Canongate is today famously known as the 'Royal Mile'.
* In 1296 Edinburgh Castle sacked by English king, Edward I.
* There is only one feasible approach to Edinburgh Castle via the eastward sloping Royal Mile and would-be assailants would have to consider this. In 1313 some resolute attackers under the orders of Robert the Bruce scaled the Castle Rock's formidable northern aspect and ramparts and retook the castle from the English. They dismantled it, except for St. MargaretsChapel
* Bruce later granted the town a royal charter in 1329 as well as jurisdiction over the port of Leith that lead to greater trading opportunities and wealth.
* In 1322 Holyrood Abbey sacked by English.
* The Castle was rebuilt in 1368, and became not only a fortress but also a royal palace.
* A brief spell then came under the English & some fierce power struggles marked the 14th & the 15th century.
* In 1498 the Palace of Holyrood was built at the site of the Abbey. Also Edinburgh was beginning to benefit from the trade and export of wool, and the 'Old Town' was developing - creating the Grassmarket & Cowgate.
* After a bad defeat by the English, at the battle of Flodden in 1513, the people of Edinburgh began to work on a second wall, the Flodden Wall, which was quickly built after the defeat and which was then followed by a time of great instability culminating in the sacking of the town by Henry VIII's forces.
* In 1560 the French abandoned all claim to Scotland in Treaty of Edinburgh.
* Completed in 1560, the Flodden Wall marked Edinburgh's boundary for the next 200 years.
* Also in 1560 Protestantism was declared as Scotland's official religion. This led to two religious faiths now being set against each other. They are best known by the two leaders who personified them in Scotland: John Knox - a zealous Protestant reformer; & Mary Queen of Scots - the pro-French Catholic. On her return to Scotland in 1561, Mary set up court in Edinburgh's Holyrood Palace. Espionage and bloodshed suffused every level of Edinburgh society, most famously in an incident when Queen Mary could only watch in horror as her secretary and confidant, David Rizzio, was murdered by a group of noblemen in Holyroodhouse under the orders of her husband, Lord Darnley.
* Their son became King James VI of Scotland in 1567, when he was 13 months old, - and in 1603 he, James VI, with the Union of the Crowns, inherited the English throne and moved his Scottish court to London. This was really the end of the Scottish monarchy as, despite his promises, James only ever returned to his native land once.
* In 1583 Edinburgh University was founded.
* In 1633 Edinburgh officially took the title of the capital of Scotland.
* Also in 1633 Charles I, son of James VI visited the Scottish capital along with the Archbishop of Canterbury with instructions that a new prayerbook be used in Scottish churches, this sparked of a chain of events, which included the National Covenant being drawn up, which led to the 'Bishops' War', which was then followed by a Civil War in England and Scotland.
* In 1645 the Great Plague sweeps through the City, killing many men, women and children.
* In 1650 Oliver Cromwell invades Edinburgh.
* In 1707 the Act of Union joined Scotland to England and the Scottish parliament was dissolved.
* In 1736 the Porteous Riot - Captain Proteous of the town guard lynched in the Grassmarket as a result of opening fire on an unruly crowd.
* The last significant assault on Edinburgh Castle came in 1745 when the Jacobite forces of Bonnie Prince Charlie attempted to wrest it from the English, without too much success - and had to content themselves with the Palace of Holyroodhouse, where they were spasmodically bombarded by the Castle's guns. The period of the Enlightenment continued and thrived following the upheavals and defeat of the Jacobite Rebellion and throughout the period of peace that followed.
* By the 18th century it was decided to branch out of the city's original ('Flodden') walls - and in 1767 a 'new town' was to be built. The Scottish architect James Craig developed a simple grid design based around three parallel streets - Princess Street, George Street and Queen Street. This plan, and the beautiful Georgian architecture of which it is comprised, are still in place today and are the envy of many a city around the world.
* The Victorian era was another time of expansion in the city. Middle-class suburbs such as Marchmont & Morningside sprung up. The Edinburgh & Leith railway line was built in 1831, which linked the port and industrial centre with the capital city, and the Edinburgh & Glasgow line then followed in 1842, then in 1846 Edinburgh was finally linked by rail to London.
* In 1864 the last public execution takes place in Edinburgh.
* In 1871 horse-drawn tramcars appear in the City.
* In 1910 electric trams are introduced.
* In 1947 Edinburgh International Festival is inaugurated along with the first Military Tattoo. Many people today associate modern Edinburgh with The International Festival, which has been keeping the city at the centre of the international arts scene ever since. Today, outside London, Edinburgh and its castle are the most popular attractions in the United Kingdom. The castle unfolds the various chapters of its long existence, through time it has been used at one time or another as a stronghold, palace, barracks and prison, - it is not just a beautiful set of buildings, but it is also saturated with the history of Edinburgh and indeed Scotland itself. The capital of the country is one of the most beautiful cities in Europe, in that there is no doubt. It is often referred to as the 'Athens of the North' due to its fine, Palladian architecture and general air of education, refinement and appearance.
* In 1996 The Stone of Destiny is returned to Scotland 7000 years after it was taken to Westminster by the English to crown English Kings and Queens. On St Andrews day the Stone was taken to Edinburgh castle for public viewing.
* More recently, the reintroduction of the Scottish parliament, three centuries after it was dissolved by the Act of Union, has meant a return of Scottish government to Edinburgh, leading to a general boom in the city's financial and business affairs.

The Old Town
The Old Town is the largely medieval heart of Edinburgh in which you can find most of its important historic monuments, including Edinburgh Castle, St Giles' Cathedral, the Palace of Holyrood and many more. Heading down from the Castle Esplanade we immediately enter the Royal Mile. The Royal Mile is the historic backbone of the Old Town, linking together Edinburgh's two royal strongholds - Edinburgh Castle and the Palace of Holyrood. Running the length of four streets - Castlehill, Lawnmarket, High Street & Canongate -there's certainly plenty to see and explore. Going back through time you would have found street stalls, street entertainers, beggars taverns, royal processions, public hangings, riots, the unpopular Town Guard, merchants, foreigners, fine town houses of the nobility, and the law courts. Many of the surviving buildings have seen 200 years or more of Edinburgh life and even today you can look around and imagine what it must have been like for the citizens of the time, particularly when wandering the many narrow closes and wynds that run off from the Royal Mile. These closes, every one of which has a tale attached to it, usually open into courtyards, characteristic of a bygone lifestyle. The Flodden Wall which was to be the protector of the city forced the town to grow up instead of out, the high tenements creating an effect of great character and diversity. Different social classes were often neighbours in these tenement buildings, which had a common entrance from the public street. In the early years of the present century, a period when much of the Old Town had deteriorated to slum property, many a destitute family still sat by an ornate fireplace inscribed with the coat of arms of a half-forgotten noble family.
A magnet for tourists, the Old Town includes many notable and historic buildings, some of the older examples including St Giles Kirk (1120), the Castle (1368), John Knox's House (c.1490), Magdalen Chapel (1545), the Canongate Tolbooth (1591) and Kirk (1688), Lady Stair's House (1622) and Moray House (1625).
The Old Town was named a World Heritage Site in 1995.
Today the Royal Mile retains its distinctive character, thanks to it's appealing historic architecture and a policy of careful conservation by the City Fathers and Conservation Groups. The rehabilitation of many of the area's historic buildings as residences during the past 70 years has provided a firm foundation for a thriving modern community.
The Cowgate & Grassmarket areas are towards the southern end of the Old Town. This bustling area is filled with clubs, pubs, music venues and restaurants/coffeshops. It's a particularly busy spot and for the locals it's usually their first stop on a night out. When the sun shines the Grassmarket has the feel of a continental town with relaxed al fresco coffee drinking, little traffic and authentic, colourful shop-fronts which make this one of Edinburgh's 'must go to' places.
Princes Street Gardens
Princes Street gardens fill the valley between Old Town and New Town, with Princes Street itself lining the northern side. The gardens were once the site of the Nor' Loch (part of the Castle's defensive moat) but this was drained in the 1750s in order that some gardens could be built. In 1816 an Act of Parliament protected the site from commercial development and so to this day the gardens remain an oasis in the heart of the city. During the summer months the park acts as a mecca for visitors in search of panoramic views of the city - for tourists who wish to climb the Scott Monument; for workers lunching in the open, for children who want to run wild, and for just about anybody who needs to relax and escape the hustle and bustle of Princes Street itself. Also situated at the foot of the Mound is the oldest Floral Clock in the world. Dating from 1903 it is made up of over 20,000 flowers and has electrical hands. If you visit the clock, arrive in time for the quarter past the hour ritual of a little cuckoo appearing from its home. During the Christmas and New year period there is an ice-rink set up here under the gaze of the Castle and there is a decidedly festive atmosphere in the park at this time with stalls selling Christmas goods and seasonal ornaments. A massive ferris wheel situated next to the Scott Monument has also been in attendance lately to add to the fun.
The Mound is in the centre of Princes Street Gardens and is known as The Mound because it is, in fact, the mound of earth that was left over from dredging the Nor' Loch at the footof the castle, - the Mound also has The Royal Scottish Academy and The National Gallery situated there.
The New Town
Whilst the Old Town marks the historical part of the city, the New Town is more a celebration of business, order & classical Georgian architecture. This is the terrain of the shops, offices and banks, which are laid out in precisely gridded streets that emanate precision and symmetry. It was James Drummond, the six times Lord Provost of Edinburgh, who came up with the idea of a 'new town' and urged the council to support it to relieve the chronic overcrowding that had occurred in the Old Town Edinburgh. A competition was announced in 1767 for the design and it was, won by James Craig, a 23-year-old unknown architect. His plan was to create an entirely residential area consisting of three main east-west streets encompassed by two grand squares at either end and incorporating large public gardens and green areas. This development proved so popular that several other New Town developments were added, making Edinburgh one of the most beautiful Georgian towns in the UK.
George Street, named in honour of George III, is the centrepiece of the New Town. It features high quality shops, restaurants and a host of bars/grills which were once imposing Bank or other Finance related buildings. With Queen Street to the north and Princes' Street (the King's first three sons born by 1766) to the south. These streets were the symbolic link between Scotland and England in the form of St. Andrew's Square (home of the Melville Monument and the Royal Bank of Scotland. It also marks the financial area of the New Town) and St. George's Square. The latter was renamed Charlotte Square in honour of the Queen and their first daughter before it was laid out by Robert Adam in 1791. Running across the scheme are Frederick Street, a name shared by the King and his father, Hanover Street after the royal family, and Castle Street, which approaches the Castle.
Princes Street, just below George Street, is the main shopping area of Edinburgh and the most famous part of the New Town. A very busy spot, its views of the Castle and proximity to the park make it a mecca for visitors and weary shoppers alike. Across the road is the Scott Monument, a predominant feature on Princes Street's skyline with a total of 287 steps in all leading to a tremendous view of this part of the city.
The most impressive building is Register House, at the north-eastern end of the street. Also at this end is Waverley market, next to Waverley station. The roof area of this shopping centre is a popular venue for performers during the Festival. Whilst Princes Street offers shoppers department stores and high street chains, Rose Street, just behind it, is an attractive pedestrianised area with more shops and cafes.
Stockbridge & Dean are in the western part of the New Town, and are known for being more outgoing and less structured. It is littered with little shops and boutiques which sit alongside various eating places and bars. Places like Randolph Crescent and Moray Place give the area a more curvaceous look with classical Georgian fronts. Dean village is an attractive old milling community well worth a visit, whilst all in all Stockbridge is a great place to browse through.
The New Town continued to be developed until 1830, with the noted architect Robert Reid (1774-1856) developing the area around Drummond Place (named after the visionary Provost) and James Gillespie Graham (1776-1855) creating Melville Street to Moray Place from the Earl of Moray's 'Lands of Drumsheugh'. - Named a World Heritage Site (1995), the New Town remains a highly desirable residential area with Princes Street being recognised internationally for retailing, and George Street still retains most of Edinburgh's considerable financial sector, although much of it has moved to various Business Parks on the outskirts of the city.